First Phase of Revolutionary Activities (1907–1917)

The first phase of revolutionary nationalism developed alongside the rise of militant nationalism and the decline of the Swadeshi movement. Young nationalists increasingly lost faith in petitions, constitutional politics and limited reforms. They turned towards secret societies, revolutionary literature, political assassinations, armed conspiracies and attempts to secure foreign assistance against British rule.

Why did Revolutionary Activities Surge?

·   Decline of the Swadeshi Movement: The Swadeshi and Boycott Movement gradually weakened after 1908. Many young activists who had experienced the enthusiasm of the movement were unwilling to return to constitutional politics after its decline.

·   Failure of Constitutional Methods: The limited achievements of the Moderates and the restricted nature of the Morley–Minto Reforms of 1909 convinced many young nationalists that petitions and constitutional agitation could not compel the British to leave India.

·   Government Repression: The British government responded to the Swadeshi movement with arrests, deportations, press restrictions and prosecutions. The repression of nationalist leaders and organisations convinced many young activists that peaceful political activity had been deliberately restricted.

·   Dissatisfaction with the Extremist Leadership: Even the Extremists failed to provide a continuous political programme after the decline of the Swadeshi movement. A section of the younger generation therefore began searching for more direct methods of resistance.

·   International Influences: Indian revolutionaries were influenced by the Russian revolutionary movement, Irish nationalism and nationalist movements in Europe. They admired the idea of secret organisations, individual sacrifice and armed resistance against imperial rule. Sumit Sarkar particularly places these developments within the broader radicalisation of educated youth during and after the Swadeshi period.

·   Inspiration from Earlier Resistance: The activities of the Chapekar brothers in Maharashtra, the writings of Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay and the militant nationalism associated with leaders such as Aurobindo Ghosh and Bal Gangadhar Tilak also influenced the younger generation.

The Revolutionary Programme

• They established secret societies and recruited young people who were prepared to undergo physical and ideological training.
• Attempted to create a spirit of sacrifice, discipline and patriotism among their members.
• Freedom fighters targeted unpopular British officials, police officers and informers through assassination attempts and organised political dacoities or robberies to obtain funds for revolutionary activities.
• They attempted to collect arms and manufacture bombs and tried to establish contacts with Indian soldiers, hoping to encourage military mutiny.
• All revolutionaries sought assistance from countries that were hostile to Britain, particularly Germany during the First World War.

Revolutionary Activities in Bengal

·       Anushilan Samiti: The early revolutionary organisations emerged around 1902 in Calcutta and Midnapore. In Calcutta, the Anushilan Samiti was associated with Promotha Mitter, Jatindranath Banerjee and Barindra Kumar Ghosh. Initially, its activities centred on physical training and moral preparation, but the organisation gradually moved towards revolutionary action.

·       Jugantar: In April 1906, an inner group of the Anushilan Samiti associated with Barindra Kumar Ghosh and Bhupendranath Dutta started the weekly Jugantar. The paper openly advocated resistance to British rule and helped spread revolutionary ideas among educated youth.

·       Attempt against Sir Fuller: In 1907, the Jugantar group attempted to assassinate Sir Bampfylde Fuller, the first Lieutenant-Governor of the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The attempt failed.

·   Muzaffarpur Bomb Case, 1908: Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki attempted to kill Magistrate Douglas Kingsford at Muzaffarpur on 30 April 1908. The bomb, however, struck the wrong carriage and killed two British women, Mrs and Miss Kennedy. Prafulla Chaki later died while attempting to evade arrest, while Khudiram Bose was arrested and executed.

·   Alipore Conspiracy Case: The Muzaffarpur investigation exposed the revolutionary network around Maniktala in Calcutta. The Alipore Conspiracy Case (1908–09) involved Aurobindo Ghosh, Barindra Kumar Ghosh and several other revolutionaries. Aurobindo was acquitted, while several others received severe punishments. Chittaranjan Das defended Aurobindo Ghosh in the trial.

·   Dacca Anushilan Samiti: In Eastern Bengal, Pulin Behari Das organised the Dacca Anushilan Samiti. It developed a more systematic network of revolutionary cells and was involved in political dacoities, including the Barrah dacoity of 1908, which was intended to raise funds for revolutionary work.

·   Rash Behari Bose and Sachindranath Sanyal: Rash Behari Bose and Sachindranath Sanyal developed contacts extending beyond Bengal into Punjab, Delhi and the United Provinces.

·   Attack on Viceroy Hardinge: On 23 December 1912, a bomb was thrown at Viceroy Lord Hardinge during his procession through Chandni Chowk, Delhi. The attack was associated with Rash Behari Bose and Sachindranath Sanyal. Hardinge survived the attack.

·   Bagha Jatin and the German Connection: During the First World War, Jatindranath Mukherjee, popularly known as Bagha Jatin, tried to reorganise the revolutionary movement and establish links with Germany. The plan was to obtain German arms and organise an armed uprising in India. The attempt ultimately failed, and Bagha Jatin was killed in an encounter with the police at Balasore in Odisha in September 1915.

Revolutionary Activities in Maharashtra

·   Chapekar Brothers: The Chapekar brothers, Damodar and Balkrishna, assassinated W.C. Rand, the Plague Commissioner of Poona, in 1897. Although this preceded the main phase, their action became an important inspiration for later revolutionaries.

·   Mitra Mela: Vinayak Damodar Savarkar founded the Mitra Mela in 1899 at Nasik.The organisation promoted nationalism and physical training and gradually developed into a revolutionary  organisation.

·   Abhinav Bharat: In 1904, Savarkar transformed Mitra Mela into Abhinav Bharat. The organisation was inspired partly by Giuseppe Mazzini and Young Italy and aimed at overthrowing British rule through revolutionary methods.

·   India House and Savarkar: Savarkar later went to London and became associated with India House, which had been established by Shyamji Krishna Varma.

·   Assassination of A.M.T. Jackson: In 1909, Anant Kanhere assassinated A.M.T. Jackson, the Collector of Nasik. The case exposed the Abhinav Bharat network, and Savarkar was subsequently arrested and sentenced to transportation for life.

Revolutionary Activities in Punjab

·   Bharat Mata Society: The Bharat Mata Society, associated with Ajit Singh, Sufi Amba Prasad and other activists, worked among the people and promoted resistance to colonial policies.

·   Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat Rai: The agitation of 1907 against the Colonisation Bill and increased land revenue brought revolutionary and militant nationalist ideas into Punjab. Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh were deported in 1907, demonstrating the government’s determination to suppress political mobilisation in the province.

Revolutionary Activities Abroad

·   India House, London: Shyamji Krishna Varma established India House in London in 1905. He also founded the Indian Home Rule Society and published the journal The Indian Sociologist.

·   Madan Lal Dhingra: In 1909, Madan Lal Dhingra assassinated Sir William Hutt Curzon Wyllie in London. Dhingra was executed for the assassination and became a celebrated revolutionary figure among militant nationalists.

·   Madam Bhikaji Cama: Madam Bhikaji Cama worked from Europe and helped internationalise the Indian nationalist cause. She published revolutionary literature and was associated with the journal Bande Mataram. At the International Socialist Congress at Stuttgart in 1907, she unfurled an early version of the Indian national flag.

·   Berlin Committee: After the outbreak of the First World War, Indian revolutionaries in Europe established the Berlin Committee, also known as the Indian Independence Committee. It sought German assistance for an armed revolt in India and tried to establish contact with Indian prisoners of war and soldiers.

Ghadar Movement

Background of Ghadar

·       Large numbers of Indians, particularly Punjabis, had migrated to Canada and the United States in search of employment. They faced racial discrimination, immigration restrictions and social humiliation. These experiences strengthened their political hostility towards British rule. The Gurdwaras became important centres of community and political organisation among Indian migrants.

Formation of the Ghadar Party: Pacific Coast Hindustan Association, popularly known as the Ghadar Party, was organised in 1913 at San Francisco. Important leaders included Lala Hardayal, Sohan Singh Bhakna, Baba Kesar Singh, Pandit Kanshi Ram, Barkatullah and Kartar Singh Sarabha.

The Ghadar Newspaper: This organisation published the newspaper Ghadar from San Francisco. Its literature called upon Indians to overthrow British rule and emphasised armed revolution rather than constitutional politics.

Komagata Maru Incident, 1914

·       The Komagata Maru incident became an important turning point in the radicalisation of Indian migrants.: In 1914, Gurdit Singh organised a voyage of the Japanese ship Komagata Maru, carrying Indian passengers, mainly Punjabis, to Canada.

·       The Canadian authorities refused to allow the passengers to land because of discriminatory immigration regulations. After remaining in Vancouver harbour for about two months, the ship was forced to return to India. When it reached Budge Budge near Calcutta on 29 September 1914, a confrontation occurred between the passengers and the colonial police. Several people were killed and many were arrested.

·       The incident deeply angered Indian migrants and strengthened the Ghadar call for armed struggle against British rule. The Ministry of Culture identifies the discrimination faced by Indians overseas as one of the important factors behind the rise of Ghadar.

Ghadar Plan for Armed Revolt in India

·       Ghadar leadership called upon its supporters to return to India and organise an uprising with the help of Indian soldiers. Rash Behari Bose, Sachindranath Sanyal, Vishnu Ganesh Pingle and Kartar Singh Sarabha became involved in the attempt to organise the revolt. The original plan was to initiate a widespread military uprising on 21 February 1915.

·       Revolutionaries attempted to contact soldiers in several cantonments, collect weapons and manufacture bombs. The Ministry of Culture records that Ghadar leaders also tried to win over Indian troops stationed in different parts of India and Southeast Asia.

·       Plan failed because the British intelligence network penetrated the revolutionary organisation. Kirpal Singh, who had gained access to the revolutionary plans, informed the authorities. The government arrested many revolutionaries before the planned uprising could take place. The subsequent Lahore Conspiracy Cases resulted in numerous death sentences, transportation and imprisonment.

Mutiny in Singapore, 1915

·       Revolutionary atmosphere also affected Indian troops stationed outside India. On 15 February 1915, Indian soldiers of the 5th Light Infantry mutinied at Singapore. The mutiny occurred in the context of wartime tensions and revolutionary propaganda. The rebels temporarily took control of parts of Singapore, but the uprising was eventually suppressed by British and Allied forces. The episode demonstrated the revolutionary attempt to transform anti-colonial sentiment among Indian soldiers into an armed revolt.

Revolutionaries in Europe and the German Connection

·       In 1915, Virendranath Chattopadhyay, Bhupendranath Datta, Lala Har Dayal, and others established the Berlin Committee for Indian Independence under the Zimmermann Plan, with the cooperation of the German Foreign Office. The objective of these revolutionaries was to organize Indians living abroad against British rule, encourage expatriate Indians to return to India and conduct revolutionary activities, ensure the supply of arms, and liberate India from colonial rule by any means necessary.

Why Did the First Phase Decline?

·   Severe Government Repression: The colonial government used laws such as the Explosive Substances Act, 1908, Indian Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1908, Press Act, 1910 and Defence of India Act/Rules, 1915 to suppress revolutionary organisations.

·   Lack of Mass Base: The revolutionaries were brave and highly committed, but their activities generally remained confined to small groups of educated youth.

·   Weak Coordination: There was no single central organisation capable of coordinating revolutionary groups operating in Bengal, Maharashtra, Punjab, Europe and North America.

·   Failure of the Ghadar Uprising: The failure of the planned 1915 revolt was a major setback. British intelligence successfully infiltrated revolutionary networks and prevented the proposed military uprising.

·   Failure of Foreign Assistance: The revolutionaries expected substantial assistance from Germany, particularly in arms and resources. These plans did not produce the expected results.

·   Changing Political Atmosphere after 1917: The Montagu Declaration of August 1917, which promised the gradual development of self-governing institutions, created a new constitutional atmosphere. At the same time, the emergence of Gandhi and mass non-violent politics offered a different route for political mobilisation. The revolutionary approach therefore temporarily lost some of its appeal.

Conclusion

The revolutionary movement of 1907–1917 represented the impatience of a younger generation with constitutional politics and colonial repression. Its secret societies and armed conspiracies could not produce a successful revolution because they lacked a broad mass base and faced powerful British intelligence. Nevertheless, revolutionaries kept alive the idea that colonial rule could be challenged through sacrifice and organised resistance, while their overseas networks gave the freedom struggle an important international dimension.

FAQs

1. Why did revolutionary activities increase after 1907?
The decline of the Swadeshi Movement, government repression, dissatisfaction with constitutional methods and the radicalisation of young nationalists encouraged revolutionary activities.

2. Which regions were the main centres of revolutionary activity?
Bengal, Maharashtra and Punjab were the principal centres, while important revolutionary networks also developed in Europe, North America and Southeast Asia.

3. What were the major revolutionary organisations of this period?
Important organisations included the Anushilan Samiti, Jugantar, Dacca Anushilan Samiti and Abhinav Bharat, while the Ghadar Party became the most significant overseas revolutionary organisation.

4. What was the significance of the Ghadar Movement?
Ghadar transformed the overseas Indian community into an important centre of revolutionary nationalism and attempted to use the First World War to organise an armed uprising in India.

5. Why did the revolutionary movement fail during 1907–1917?
It lacked a sustained mass base and central coordination, while British intelligence and repression disrupted its organisations. The failure of the 1915 Ghadar revolt and the absence of effective foreign military assistance further weakened the movement.